Course Information Click Here
Aging and Long Term Care CEUs
10 Hours
AR, CA, CO, FL, HI, KY, LA, MA, MI, MO, NV, NY, OH, OR, TX
Define aging and long term care • Become familiar with relevant demographic information. • Obtain information that includes but is not limited to, the biological, social, and psychological aspects of aging. • Learn the psychological impact of aging • Describe the relationship between aging and culture • Distinguish between long term and alternative types of care • Identify and access relevant resources
Alcoholism and Substance Abuse Dependency CEUs
15 Hours
AR, CA, CO, FL, HI, KY, LA, MA, MI, MO, NV, NY, OH, OR, TX
Become familiar with clinical and statistical information regarding substance abuse history, DSM criteria, types of abuse, demographic characteristics, treatment, and outcomes • Define substance abuse and identify its effects • Become familiar with the medical aspects of alcohol abuse/dependence and other types of chemical dependency • Apply current theories of the etiology of substance abuse • Recognize the role of persons and systems that support/compound the abuse
Anger Management CEUs
3 Hours
AR, CA, CO, FL, HI, KY, LA, MA, MI, MO, NV, NY, OH, OR, TX
Become familiar with cultural influences on anger management • Become familiar with historical influences on anger management • Identify poor anger management symptomology • Utilize fundamental anger management techniques • Access vital anger management mental healthcare resources
Anxiety Disorders CEUs
6 Hours
AR, CA, CO, FL, HI, KY, LA, MA, MI, MO, NV, NY, OH, OR, TX
Define various anxiety disorders • Evaluate and diagnose various anxiety disorders • Identify common causes of various anxiety disorders • Distinguish between different anxiety disorders • Utilize effective treatment approaches and techniques
Bipolar Disorder CEUs
6 Hours
AR, CA, CO, FL, HI, KY, LA, MA, MI, MO, NV, NY, OH, OR, TX
Define Bipolar Disorder • Become familiar with historical influences • Identify Bipolar Disorder symptomology • Identify and distinguish between various Bipolar Diagnoses • Identify causes and associated features • Identify and apply effective treatment approaches
Boundaries CEUs
3 Hours
AR, CA, CO, FL, HI, KY, LA, MA, MI, MO, NV, NY, OH, OR, TX
Clear boundaries are essential to a healthy, balanced lifestyle. A boundary is a personal property line that marks those things for which we are responsible. In other words, boundaries define who we are and are not. Boundaries impact all areas of our lives: Physical boundaries help us determine who may touch us, mental boundaries give us the freedom to have our own thoughts, emotional boundaries help us deal with our own emotions, spiritual boundaries help us distinguish God's will...
Boundaries in Marriage CEUs
3 Hours
AR, CA, CO, FL, HI, KY, LA, MA, MI, MO, NV, NY, OH, OR, TX
Two lives becoming one: That’s the marriage ideal. But maybe you’ve discovered that it’s easier said than done. How do you solve problems? How do you establish healthy communication? How do you work out conflict and deal with the struggle of differing needs? In the process of knitting two souls together, it’s easy to tear the fabric. That’s why boundaries—the ways we define and maintain our sense of individuality, freedom, and personal integrity—are so important.
Child Abuse Assessment and Reporting CEUs
7 Hours
AR, CA, CO, FL, HI, KY, LA, MA, MI, MO, NV, NY, OH, OR, TX
Assess child abuse risk factors • Evaluate the need for a Suspected Child Abuse Report • Become familiar with relevant child abuse statistics • Differentiate between the roles of mandated and non-mandated reporters • Identify the symptoms and warning signs of child abuse • Utilize applicable clinical assessment and treatment tools • Utilize applicable treatment interventions • Identify and have accessibility to relevant resources
Cognitive Behavioral Therapy CEUs
4 Hours
AR, CA, CO, FL, HI, KY, LA, MA, MI, MO, NV, NY, OH, OR, TX
Identify Cognitive Behavioral Therapy Fundamental concepts • Explore the history and development of CBT • Apply CBT assessment strategies • Identify and utilize CBT clinical approaches • Apply CBT principles and therapeutic techniques • Utilize CBT tools and interventions • Access CBT resources
Conflict Resolution CEUs
3 Hours
AR, CA, CO, FL, HI, KY, LA, MA, MI, MO, NV, NY, OH, OR, TX
Define the process of conflict resolution • Learn specific conflict resolution techniques • Identify various theoretical approaches to conflict resolution • Identify the barriers to conflict resolution • Clinically address the barriers to conflict resolution
HIV and Aids CEUs
Law and Ethics CEUs (California BBS approved)
Human Sexuality CEUs
January 22, 2010
Online Continuing Education Units CEUS for MFT, LCSW, and LPC License Renewal
Human Sexuality CEUs
© 2009 by Aspira Continuing Education. All rights reserved. No part of this material may be transmitted or reproduced in any form, or by any means, mechanical or electronic without written permission of Aspira Continuing Education.
1. Define the different study/research areas of human sexuality.
2. Increase familiarity with concepts related to the psychology of sex
3. Identify and evaluate clinical perspectives related to sexual activity and lifestyles.
4. Explore the impact religious belief systems on sex.
5. Learn specific laws related to sex and sexual crimes.
6. Identify the causes and symptoms of STDs
7. Increase familiarity with sexual disorders
1. Definition
2. Psychology and Sex
3. Sexual Activity and Lifestyles
4. Religion and Sex
5. The Law and Sex
6. Sexually Transmitted Diseases
7. Masters and Johnson
© 2009 by Aspira Continuing Education. All rights reserved. No part of this material may be transmitted or reproduced in any form, or by any means, mechanical or electronic without written permission of Aspira Continuing Education.
1. Define the different study/research areas of human sexuality.
2. Increase familiarity with concepts related to the psychology of sex
3. Identify and evaluate clinical perspectives related to sexual activity and lifestyles.
4. Explore the impact religious belief systems on sex.
5. Learn specific laws related to sex and sexual crimes.
6. Identify the causes and symptoms of STDs
7. Increase familiarity with sexual disorders
1. Definition
2. Psychology and Sex
3. Sexual Activity and Lifestyles
4. Religion and Sex
5. The Law and Sex
6. Sexually Transmitted Diseases
7. Masters and Johnson
BBS Aproved LCSW and LMFT MFT Online Continuing Education Units (CEU, CEUs))
CEU COURSE INFO
Domestic Violence/Spousal and Partner Abuse CEUS
Substance Abuse and Dependence CEUS
Law and Ethics (Califonia only) CEUS
HIV and Aids CEUS
Aging and Long Term Care CEUS
Child Abuse CEUS
Crisis Counseling CEUS
Cross Cultural Counseling CEUS
Managed Care CEUS
PTSD CEUS
Anxiety Disorders CEUS
Depressive Disorder CEUS
Medical Necessity CEUS
Cognitive Behavioral Therapy CEUS
Pychopharmacology CEUS
Bipolar Disorder CEUS
Conflict Resolution CEUS
Anger Management CEUS
Assessment and Diagnosis CEUS
Elder Abuse CEUS
Family Therapy CEUS
Group Therapy CEUS
Human Sexuality CEUS
Domestic Violence/Spousal and Partner Abuse CEUS
Substance Abuse and Dependence CEUS
Law and Ethics (Califonia only) CEUS
HIV and Aids CEUS
Aging and Long Term Care CEUS
Child Abuse CEUS
Crisis Counseling CEUS
Cross Cultural Counseling CEUS
Managed Care CEUS
PTSD CEUS
Anxiety Disorders CEUS
Depressive Disorder CEUS
Medical Necessity CEUS
Cognitive Behavioral Therapy CEUS
Pychopharmacology CEUS
Bipolar Disorder CEUS
Conflict Resolution CEUS
Anger Management CEUS
Assessment and Diagnosis CEUS
Elder Abuse CEUS
Family Therapy CEUS
Group Therapy CEUS
Human Sexuality CEUS
Continuing Education CEUS for MFT, LCSW, and LPC License Renewal
AGING AND LONG TERM CARE(10 Hours/units)
© 2009 by Aspira Continuing Education. All rights reserved. No part of this material may be transmitted or reproduced in any form, or by any means, mechanical or electronic without written permission of Aspira Continuing Education.
Aging and LTC Courses
1. Define aging and long term care
2. Become familiar with relevant demographic information.
3. Obtain information that includes but is not limited to, the biological, social, and psychological aspects of aging.4. Learn the psychological impact of aging
5. Describe the relationship between aging and culture
6. Distinguish between long term and alternative types of care7. Identify and access relevant resources
Table of Contents:
1. Definitions
2. Demographic Information
3. Biological Aging
4. Aging and Culture5. Long Term Care
6. Psychological Considerations
7. Elder and Dependent Adult Abuse Reporting8. Resources
9. References
© 2009 by Aspira Continuing Education. All rights reserved. No part of this material may be transmitted or reproduced in any form, or by any means, mechanical or electronic without written permission of Aspira Continuing Education.
Aging and LTC Courses
1. Define aging and long term care
2. Become familiar with relevant demographic information.
3. Obtain information that includes but is not limited to, the biological, social, and psychological aspects of aging.4. Learn the psychological impact of aging
5. Describe the relationship between aging and culture
6. Distinguish between long term and alternative types of care7. Identify and access relevant resources
Table of Contents:
1. Definitions
2. Demographic Information
3. Biological Aging
4. Aging and Culture5. Long Term Care
6. Psychological Considerations
7. Elder and Dependent Adult Abuse Reporting8. Resources
9. References
January 20, 2010
Spousal and Partner Abuse CEUs
© 2009 by Aspira Continuing Education. All rights reserved. No part of this material may be transmitted or reproduced in any form, or by any means, mechanical or electronic without written permission of Aspira Continuing Education.
1. Learn definition and distinguish between types of abuse
2. Become familiar with relevant facts and statistics
3. Identify spousal/partner abuse symptoms
4. Evaluate the effects of spousal/ partner abuse5. Identify same gender abuse dynamics
6. Become familiar with relevant cultural factors
7. Learn the national domestic violence applicable laws
8. Become familiar with resources and referrals
Table of Contents:
1. Definitions and Types of Abuse
2. Facts and Statistics
3. Symptoms and Effects
4. Domestic Violence and the Law
5. Evaluation, Intervention and Treatment
6. Resources and Referrals
7. References
1. Definitions and Types of Abuse
Domestic violence and emotional abuse is characterized by physically and/or psychologically dominating behaviors used by a perpetrator to control the victim. Partners may be married or unmarried; heterosexual, or homosexual; living together, separated or dating. Domestic violence occurs in all cultures; people of all races, ethnicities, religions, sexes and classes can be perpetrators of domestic violence. Domestic violence is also known as domestic abuse, spousal abuse, or intimate partner violence. Domestic violence is perpetrated by both men and women. Domestic abuse is any form of abuse that occurs between and among persons related by affection, kinship, or trust. It can occur with youth, adults or elders of all ages and walks of life. The perpetrator often will use fear and intimidation as a method of control. The perpetrator may also threaten to use or may actually use physical violence. Domestic abuse that includes physical violence is called domestic violence. Domestic abuse is intentionally trying to control another person. The abuser intentionally uses verbal, nonverbal, or physical methods to gain control over the other person. Domestic abuse includes:
• Physical abuse
• Sexual abuse or sexual assault
• Verbal abuse
• Emotional Abuse
• Financial abuse
• Neglect
• Ritual abuse
• Spiritual abuse
• Criminal harassment
• Stalking, and Cyber stalking(Stark, E., A. Flitcraft, 1996. Women at Risk: Domestic Violence and Women's Health. Sage).
There are many considerations in evaluating abuse including:
• Mode: physical, psychological, sexual and/or social.
• Frequency: on/off, occasional and chronic.
• Severity: in terms of both psychological or physical harm and the need for treatment.
• Transitory or permanent injury: mild, moderate, severe and up to homicide.
An area of the domestic violence field that is often overlooked is passive abuse leading to violence. Passive abuse is covert, subtle and veiled. This includes victimization, procrastination, forgetfulness, ambiguity, neglect, spiritual and intellectual abuse.
Increased recognition of domestic violence began during the women's movement. Awareness regarding domestic violence varies among different countries. Only about a third of cases of domestic violence are actually reported in the United States and the United Kingdom. According to the Centers for Disease Control, domestic violence is a serious, preventable public health problem affecting more than 32 million Americans, or more than 10% of the U.S. population.
There is increasing awareness and advocacy for men victimized by women. In a report on violence related injuries by the US Department of justice (USDOJ August 1997) hospital emergency room visits related to domestic violence revealed that physically abused men represent just under one-sixth of the total patients admitted to hospital reporting domestic violence as the cause of their injuries. The report reveals that significantly more men than women did not disclose the identity of their attacker. This is likely due to shame, stigma, and embarrassment associated with men victimized by women.
According to a July 2000 Centers for Disease Control Report, data from the Bureau of Justice, National Crime Victimization Survey consistently show that women are at significantly greater risk of intimate partner violence than are men. In May, 2007, researchers with the Centers for Disease Control reported on rates of self-reported violence among intimate partners using data from a 2001 study. In the study, almost one-quarter of participants reported some violence in their relationships. Half of these involved one-sided ("non-reciprocal") attacks and half involved both assaults and counter assaults ("reciprocal violence"). Women reported committing one-sided attacks more than twice as often as men (70% versus 29%). In all cases of intimate partner violence, women were more likely to be injured than men, but 25% of men in relationships with two-sided violence reported injury
compared to 20% of women reporting injury in relationships with one-sided violence. Women were more likely to be injured in non-reciprocal violence.
Physical Abuse
Physical abuse is characterized by aggressive behavior that may result in the victim sustaining injury. Physical abuse attacks are used by the perpetrator to control the victim. The abuse is rarely a single incident and typically forms identifiable patterns that may repeat more and more quickly, and which may become increasingly violent.
Physical abuse can include:
• assault with a weapon
• biting, pinching
• burning
• choking
• kicking, pushing, throwing or shaking
• slapping, hitting, tripping, grabbing or punching
• tying down or otherwise restraining or confining
• homicide
Sexual Abuse and Assault
Sexual abuse and assault includes any non-consensual sexual activity ranging from harassment, unwanted sexual touching, to rape. Sexual harassment is characterized by ridiculing another person to try to limit their sexuality or reproductive choices, while sexual exploitation could involve forcing someone to participate in pornographic film-making. Examples of sexual abuse include fondling of genitals, penetration, incest, rape, sodomy, indecent exposure, forced prostitution, forced production of pornographic materials (
Verbal/ Emotional/ Psychological Abuse
Abbott, Pamela and Emma Williamson, 1999.. "Women, Health and Domestic Violence". Journal of Gender Studies).
Domestic violence is not only physical and sexual violence but also psychological. Psychological violence can be defined as intense and repetitive degradation, creating isolation, and controlling the actions or behaviors of the spouse through intimidation or manipulation to the detriment of the individual. Emotional and psychological abuse sometimes involves tactics to undermine an individual's self-confidence and sense of self-worth, such as yelling, mocking, insulting, threatening, using abusive language, humiliating, harassing and degrading. It can also include deprivation of emotional care, and isolating the individual being targeted (Five Year State Master Plan for the Prevention of and Service for Domestic Violence." Utah State Department of Human Services, January 1994).
Financial/Economic Abuse
Financial abuse occurs when one individual attempts to take total or partial control of another's finances, inheritance or employment income. It may include denying access to one's own financial records and knowledge about personal investments, income or debt, or preventing a partner from engaging in activities that would lead to financial independence.
Financial or economic abuse includes:
• withholding economic resources such as money or credit cards
• stealing from or defrauding a partner of money or assets
• exploiting the partner's resources for personal gain
• withholding physical resources such as food, clothes, necessary medications, or shelter from a partner
• preventing a partner from working or choosing an occupation
Ritual Abuse
Ritual abuse is defined as a combination of severe physical, sexual, psychological and spiritual abuses used systematically and in combination with symbols, ceremonies and/or group activities that have a religious, magical or supernatural connotation. Victims are terrorized into silence by repetitive torture and abuse over time and indoctrinated into the beliefs and practices of the cult or group. Ritual abuse may also be linked to Satanism or devil worship.
Spiritual Abuse
Spiritual abuse may include:
• using the partner's religious or spiritual beliefs to manipulate them
• preventing the partner from practicing their religious or spiritual beliefs
• ridiculing the other person's religious or spiritual beliefs
• forcing the children to be reared in a faith that the partner has not agreed to
Spiritual and religious abuse is also abuse done in the name of, brought on by, or attributed to a belief system of the abuser, or abuse from a religious leader. This can include Priests, Ministers, cult members, family members, or anyone abusing in the name of a deity or perceived deity. Spiritual or religious abuse can find its way into every religion and belief system that exists. It may encompass many other forms of abuse, especially physical, sexual, emotional, psychological and financial (Warshaw, C. (1993). "Limitations of the Medical Model in the Care of Battered Women". in Bart, P., E. Moran. Violence Against Women: The Bloody Footprints. Sage).
Harassment, Stalking and Cyberstalking
Stalking is harassment of or threatening another person, especially in a manner that physically or emotionally disturbs them. Stalking of an intimate partner can occur place during the relationship, with intense monitoring of the partner's activities, or it can take place after a partner or spouse has left the relationship. The stalker may be trying to get their partner back, or they may wish to harm their partner as punishment for their departure. Regardless of the motive, the victim fears for their safety. Stalking may occur at or near the victim's home, near or in their workplace, on the way to any destination, or on the internet (cyberstalking). Stalking can be on the phone, in person, or online. Stalkers sometimes do not reveal themselves, or they may just “show up” unexpectedly. Stalking is often unpredictable and dangerous. Stalkers may utilize threatening tactics including:
• “showing up” wherever the victim is located
• repeated phone calls (often hanging up)
• following the victim
• watching the victim from a hiding place
• sending the victim unwanted packages/gifts/letters
• monitoring the victim's phone calls
• monitoring the victim’s mail or internet use
• sifting through the victim's garbage
• contacting the victim's friends, family, co-workers, or neighbors to obtain information about the victim
• damaging the victim's property
• threatening to hurt the victim or the victim’s family, friends or pets
Cyberstalking is defined as utilizing the internet with the intention to harass and/or stalk another person. Cyberstalking is deliberate and persistent in nature. It may be an additional form of harassment, or the only method the perpetrator employs. The cyber stalker’s communication may be disturbing and inappropriate. Often, the more the victim protests or responds, the more rewarding the cyberstalker experiences the stalking. The best way to respond to a cyberstalker is not to respond. Cyberstalking may graduate to physical stalking, aggression, and violence.
Battering relationships are often characterized by cyclical phases, sometimes referred to as The Cycle of Violence. A period of peace and calm is followed by escalating tension. A woman might feel as though she were walking on eggshells. Minor incidents may occur that the woman tries to minimize or deny, sometimes by taking the blame. When the tension becomes unmanageable, aggression occurs. The victim may be kicked, thrown against a wall, raped, threatened at gun or knife point, slapped, punched or subjected to any of the endless mental and physical abuses that batterers use to intimidate and control their partners.
1. Learn definition and distinguish between types of abuse
2. Become familiar with relevant facts and statistics
3. Identify spousal/partner abuse symptoms
4. Evaluate the effects of spousal/ partner abuse5. Identify same gender abuse dynamics
6. Become familiar with relevant cultural factors
7. Learn the national domestic violence applicable laws
8. Become familiar with resources and referrals
Table of Contents:
1. Definitions and Types of Abuse
2. Facts and Statistics
3. Symptoms and Effects
4. Domestic Violence and the Law
5. Evaluation, Intervention and Treatment
6. Resources and Referrals
7. References
1. Definitions and Types of Abuse
Domestic violence and emotional abuse is characterized by physically and/or psychologically dominating behaviors used by a perpetrator to control the victim. Partners may be married or unmarried; heterosexual, or homosexual; living together, separated or dating. Domestic violence occurs in all cultures; people of all races, ethnicities, religions, sexes and classes can be perpetrators of domestic violence. Domestic violence is also known as domestic abuse, spousal abuse, or intimate partner violence. Domestic violence is perpetrated by both men and women. Domestic abuse is any form of abuse that occurs between and among persons related by affection, kinship, or trust. It can occur with youth, adults or elders of all ages and walks of life. The perpetrator often will use fear and intimidation as a method of control. The perpetrator may also threaten to use or may actually use physical violence. Domestic abuse that includes physical violence is called domestic violence. Domestic abuse is intentionally trying to control another person. The abuser intentionally uses verbal, nonverbal, or physical methods to gain control over the other person. Domestic abuse includes:
• Physical abuse
• Sexual abuse or sexual assault
• Verbal abuse
• Emotional Abuse
• Financial abuse
• Neglect
• Ritual abuse
• Spiritual abuse
• Criminal harassment
• Stalking, and Cyber stalking(Stark, E., A. Flitcraft, 1996. Women at Risk: Domestic Violence and Women's Health. Sage).
There are many considerations in evaluating abuse including:
• Mode: physical, psychological, sexual and/or social.
• Frequency: on/off, occasional and chronic.
• Severity: in terms of both psychological or physical harm and the need for treatment.
• Transitory or permanent injury: mild, moderate, severe and up to homicide.
An area of the domestic violence field that is often overlooked is passive abuse leading to violence. Passive abuse is covert, subtle and veiled. This includes victimization, procrastination, forgetfulness, ambiguity, neglect, spiritual and intellectual abuse.
Increased recognition of domestic violence began during the women's movement. Awareness regarding domestic violence varies among different countries. Only about a third of cases of domestic violence are actually reported in the United States and the United Kingdom. According to the Centers for Disease Control, domestic violence is a serious, preventable public health problem affecting more than 32 million Americans, or more than 10% of the U.S. population.
There is increasing awareness and advocacy for men victimized by women. In a report on violence related injuries by the US Department of justice (USDOJ August 1997) hospital emergency room visits related to domestic violence revealed that physically abused men represent just under one-sixth of the total patients admitted to hospital reporting domestic violence as the cause of their injuries. The report reveals that significantly more men than women did not disclose the identity of their attacker. This is likely due to shame, stigma, and embarrassment associated with men victimized by women.
According to a July 2000 Centers for Disease Control Report, data from the Bureau of Justice, National Crime Victimization Survey consistently show that women are at significantly greater risk of intimate partner violence than are men. In May, 2007, researchers with the Centers for Disease Control reported on rates of self-reported violence among intimate partners using data from a 2001 study. In the study, almost one-quarter of participants reported some violence in their relationships. Half of these involved one-sided ("non-reciprocal") attacks and half involved both assaults and counter assaults ("reciprocal violence"). Women reported committing one-sided attacks more than twice as often as men (70% versus 29%). In all cases of intimate partner violence, women were more likely to be injured than men, but 25% of men in relationships with two-sided violence reported injury
compared to 20% of women reporting injury in relationships with one-sided violence. Women were more likely to be injured in non-reciprocal violence.
Physical Abuse
Physical abuse is characterized by aggressive behavior that may result in the victim sustaining injury. Physical abuse attacks are used by the perpetrator to control the victim. The abuse is rarely a single incident and typically forms identifiable patterns that may repeat more and more quickly, and which may become increasingly violent.
Physical abuse can include:
• assault with a weapon
• biting, pinching
• burning
• choking
• kicking, pushing, throwing or shaking
• slapping, hitting, tripping, grabbing or punching
• tying down or otherwise restraining or confining
• homicide
Sexual Abuse and Assault
Sexual abuse and assault includes any non-consensual sexual activity ranging from harassment, unwanted sexual touching, to rape. Sexual harassment is characterized by ridiculing another person to try to limit their sexuality or reproductive choices, while sexual exploitation could involve forcing someone to participate in pornographic film-making. Examples of sexual abuse include fondling of genitals, penetration, incest, rape, sodomy, indecent exposure, forced prostitution, forced production of pornographic materials (
Verbal/ Emotional/ Psychological Abuse
Abbott, Pamela and Emma Williamson, 1999.. "Women, Health and Domestic Violence". Journal of Gender Studies).
Domestic violence is not only physical and sexual violence but also psychological. Psychological violence can be defined as intense and repetitive degradation, creating isolation, and controlling the actions or behaviors of the spouse through intimidation or manipulation to the detriment of the individual. Emotional and psychological abuse sometimes involves tactics to undermine an individual's self-confidence and sense of self-worth, such as yelling, mocking, insulting, threatening, using abusive language, humiliating, harassing and degrading. It can also include deprivation of emotional care, and isolating the individual being targeted (Five Year State Master Plan for the Prevention of and Service for Domestic Violence." Utah State Department of Human Services, January 1994).
Financial/Economic Abuse
Financial abuse occurs when one individual attempts to take total or partial control of another's finances, inheritance or employment income. It may include denying access to one's own financial records and knowledge about personal investments, income or debt, or preventing a partner from engaging in activities that would lead to financial independence.
Financial or economic abuse includes:
• withholding economic resources such as money or credit cards
• stealing from or defrauding a partner of money or assets
• exploiting the partner's resources for personal gain
• withholding physical resources such as food, clothes, necessary medications, or shelter from a partner
• preventing a partner from working or choosing an occupation
Ritual Abuse
Ritual abuse is defined as a combination of severe physical, sexual, psychological and spiritual abuses used systematically and in combination with symbols, ceremonies and/or group activities that have a religious, magical or supernatural connotation. Victims are terrorized into silence by repetitive torture and abuse over time and indoctrinated into the beliefs and practices of the cult or group. Ritual abuse may also be linked to Satanism or devil worship.
Spiritual Abuse
Spiritual abuse may include:
• using the partner's religious or spiritual beliefs to manipulate them
• preventing the partner from practicing their religious or spiritual beliefs
• ridiculing the other person's religious or spiritual beliefs
• forcing the children to be reared in a faith that the partner has not agreed to
Spiritual and religious abuse is also abuse done in the name of, brought on by, or attributed to a belief system of the abuser, or abuse from a religious leader. This can include Priests, Ministers, cult members, family members, or anyone abusing in the name of a deity or perceived deity. Spiritual or religious abuse can find its way into every religion and belief system that exists. It may encompass many other forms of abuse, especially physical, sexual, emotional, psychological and financial (Warshaw, C. (1993). "Limitations of the Medical Model in the Care of Battered Women". in Bart, P., E. Moran. Violence Against Women: The Bloody Footprints. Sage).
Harassment, Stalking and Cyberstalking
Stalking is harassment of or threatening another person, especially in a manner that physically or emotionally disturbs them. Stalking of an intimate partner can occur place during the relationship, with intense monitoring of the partner's activities, or it can take place after a partner or spouse has left the relationship. The stalker may be trying to get their partner back, or they may wish to harm their partner as punishment for their departure. Regardless of the motive, the victim fears for their safety. Stalking may occur at or near the victim's home, near or in their workplace, on the way to any destination, or on the internet (cyberstalking). Stalking can be on the phone, in person, or online. Stalkers sometimes do not reveal themselves, or they may just “show up” unexpectedly. Stalking is often unpredictable and dangerous. Stalkers may utilize threatening tactics including:
• “showing up” wherever the victim is located
• repeated phone calls (often hanging up)
• following the victim
• watching the victim from a hiding place
• sending the victim unwanted packages/gifts/letters
• monitoring the victim's phone calls
• monitoring the victim’s mail or internet use
• sifting through the victim's garbage
• contacting the victim's friends, family, co-workers, or neighbors to obtain information about the victim
• damaging the victim's property
• threatening to hurt the victim or the victim’s family, friends or pets
Cyberstalking is defined as utilizing the internet with the intention to harass and/or stalk another person. Cyberstalking is deliberate and persistent in nature. It may be an additional form of harassment, or the only method the perpetrator employs. The cyber stalker’s communication may be disturbing and inappropriate. Often, the more the victim protests or responds, the more rewarding the cyberstalker experiences the stalking. The best way to respond to a cyberstalker is not to respond. Cyberstalking may graduate to physical stalking, aggression, and violence.
Battering relationships are often characterized by cyclical phases, sometimes referred to as The Cycle of Violence. A period of peace and calm is followed by escalating tension. A woman might feel as though she were walking on eggshells. Minor incidents may occur that the woman tries to minimize or deny, sometimes by taking the blame. When the tension becomes unmanageable, aggression occurs. The victim may be kicked, thrown against a wall, raped, threatened at gun or knife point, slapped, punched or subjected to any of the endless mental and physical abuses that batterers use to intimidate and control their partners.
January 19, 2010
Law and Ethics California MFTs LCSWs
© 2009 by Aspira Continuing Education. All rights reserved. No part of this material may be transmitted or reproduced in any form, or by any means, mechanical or electronic without written permission of Aspira Continuing Education.
1. SCOPE OF PRACTICE 1A. MFT SCOPE OF PRACTICE 1B. LCSW SCOPE OF PRACTICE 2. UNPROFFESIONAL CONDUCT, NEGLIGENCE, LAW, ETHICS, AND STANDARD OF CARE 2A. UNPROFESSIONAL CONDUCT AND NEGLIGENCE 2B. LAW 2C. ETHICS 2D. STANDARD OF CARE 3. LEGAL ISSUES 3A. PRIVILEGE 3B. CONFIDENTIALITY 3C. EXCEPTIONS TO CONFIDENTIALITY: CHILD ABUSE, DEPENDENT ADULT & ELDER ABUSE , TARASOFF, DANGER TO SELF 3D. TREATMENT OF MINORS 3E. SEX WITH CLIENTS 3F. RECORD RETENTION AND STORAGE 3G. TERMINATION 3H. INFORMED CONSENT 3I. MALPRACTICE 4. HIPAA AND THIRD PARTY REIMBURSEMENT FOR MENTAL HEALTH SERVICES 5. CONTINUING EDUCATION 6. PROFESSIONAL ETHICS 6A. CAMFT ETHICAL STANDARDS PT II SECTION D 6B. REVISED CAMFT ETHICAL STANDARDS 6C. NASW ETHICAL STANDARDS 7. REFERENCES
1. Scope of Practice
The Attorney General describes scope of practice as the following: 1. MFTs and LCSWs “may practice psychotherapy” as it relates to the treatment of relational issues and social adjustments. 2. MFTs and LCSWs may diagnose and treat mental disorders as it relates to the treatment of relational issues and social adjustments. 3. MFTs and LCSWs may administer psychological tests, as long as the testing instrument used is within a therapist’s scope of competence as established by education, training, or experience and as long as the test is administered within the context of providing therapy. In other words, stand-alone testing of persons who are not psychotherapy clients would be outside the scope of practice for MFTs and LCSWs. Circumstances exist in which a “special relationship” is presumed by law to exist when one person is particularly vulnerable and dependent on another person who, correspondingly, has some control over the person’s welfare (Kockelman v. Segal, 1998). The relationship between a therapist and his or her patient constitutes this type of relationship. This special relationship imposes an affirmative duty on the therapist to protect others from either the therapist’s own negligence or from the client’s dangerousness towards self or others. 1A. MFT Scope of Practice MFT scope of practice is defined in Section 4980.02 of the California Business and Professions Code, “For the purposes of this chapter, the practice of marriage, family, and child counseling shall mean that service performed with individuals, couples, or groups wherein interpersonal relationships are examined for the purpose of achieving more adequate, satisfying, and productive marriage and family adjustments. This practice includes relationship and pre-marriage counseling. The applications of marriage, family, and child counseling principles and methods includes, but is not limited to, the use of applied psychotherapeutic techniques, to enable individuals to mature and grow within marriage and the family, and the provision of explanations and interpretations of the psychosexual and psychosocial aspects of relationships.” Pursuant to Business and Professions Code Section 4980.08, effective July 1, 1999, the title "licensed marriage, family and child counselor" or "marriage, family and child counselor" is hereby renamed "licensed marriage and family therapist" or "marriage and family therapist," respectively. Any reference in any statute or regulation to a "licensed marriage, family and child counselor" or "marriage, family and child counselor" shall be deemed a reference to a "licensed marriage and family therapist" or "marriage and family therapist."
1B. LCSW Scope of Practice LCSW scope of practice is defined in Section: 4996.9 of the California Business and Professions Code, “The practice of clinical social work is defined as a service in which a special knowledge of social resources, human capabilities, and the part that unconscious motivation plays in determining behavior, is directed at helping people to achieve more adequate, satisfying, and productive social adjustments. The application of social work principles and methods includes, but is not restricted to, counseling and using applied psychotherapy of a non-medical nature with individuals, families, or groups; providing information and referral services; providing or arranging for the provision of social services; explaining or interpreting the psychosocial aspects in the situations of individuals, families, or groups; helping communities to organize, to provide, or to improve social or health services; or doing research related to social work. “Psychotherapy, within the meaning of this chapter, is the use of psychosocial methods within a professional relationship, to assist the person or persons to achieve a better psychosocial adaptation, to acquire greater human realization of psychosocial potential and adaptation, to modify internal and external conditions which affect individuals, groups, or communities in respect to behavior, emotions, and thinking, in respect to their intrapersonal and interpersonal processes.”
2. UNPROFFESIONAL CONDUCT, NEGLIGENCE, LAW, ETHICS, AND STANDARD OF CARE
2A. Unprofessional Conduct and Negligence
The Business and Professions Code, Section 4982 indicates examples of unprofessional conduct including “negligence or incompetence in the performance of marriage and family therapy; misrepresentation involving type of license held, educational credentials, professional qualification or professional affiliations; performing, or holding oneself out as being able to perform services outside the scope of the license; failing to maintain confidentiality, except as otherwise permitted or required by law; and soliciting or paying remuneration for referrals. Unprofessional conduct is punishable by revocation or suspension of a license or an intern's registration; it is also a misdemeanor punishable by imprisonment in the county jail not exceeding six months, by a fine not exceeding $2,500, or both.” Required Coursework in Psychological Testing and Psychopharmacology: Business & Professions Code 4980.41(f) requires qualifying master's or doctor's degree programs leading to the MFT license to contain survey courses in psychopharmacology. These courses will be required only for those persons who begin graduate study on or after January 1, 2001. Anyone currently in the pipeline will not be affected by this new requirement. In regards to recordkeeping, 2. Interns are not to be supervised by anyone with whom they have a personal relationship. Nor should interns receive supervision from their psychotherapists. the failure to keep records consistent with sound clinical judgment, the standards of the profession, and the nature of the services being rendered is considered unprofessional conduct. No person may, for remuneration, engage in the practice of marriage and family therapy or social work as defined by Section 4980.02, unless he or she holds a valid license as a Marriage and Family Therapist or social worker, or unless he is specifically exempted from such requirement, nor may he advertise himself or herself as performing the services of a marriage, family, child, domestic, or marital consultant, or in any way use these or any similar titles to imply that he or she performs these services without a license as provided by this chapter.
1. SCOPE OF PRACTICE 1A. MFT SCOPE OF PRACTICE 1B. LCSW SCOPE OF PRACTICE 2. UNPROFFESIONAL CONDUCT, NEGLIGENCE, LAW, ETHICS, AND STANDARD OF CARE 2A. UNPROFESSIONAL CONDUCT AND NEGLIGENCE 2B. LAW 2C. ETHICS 2D. STANDARD OF CARE 3. LEGAL ISSUES 3A. PRIVILEGE 3B. CONFIDENTIALITY 3C. EXCEPTIONS TO CONFIDENTIALITY: CHILD ABUSE, DEPENDENT ADULT & ELDER ABUSE , TARASOFF, DANGER TO SELF 3D. TREATMENT OF MINORS 3E. SEX WITH CLIENTS 3F. RECORD RETENTION AND STORAGE 3G. TERMINATION 3H. INFORMED CONSENT 3I. MALPRACTICE 4. HIPAA AND THIRD PARTY REIMBURSEMENT FOR MENTAL HEALTH SERVICES 5. CONTINUING EDUCATION 6. PROFESSIONAL ETHICS 6A. CAMFT ETHICAL STANDARDS PT II SECTION D 6B. REVISED CAMFT ETHICAL STANDARDS 6C. NASW ETHICAL STANDARDS 7. REFERENCES
1. Scope of Practice
The Attorney General describes scope of practice as the following: 1. MFTs and LCSWs “may practice psychotherapy” as it relates to the treatment of relational issues and social adjustments. 2. MFTs and LCSWs may diagnose and treat mental disorders as it relates to the treatment of relational issues and social adjustments. 3. MFTs and LCSWs may administer psychological tests, as long as the testing instrument used is within a therapist’s scope of competence as established by education, training, or experience and as long as the test is administered within the context of providing therapy. In other words, stand-alone testing of persons who are not psychotherapy clients would be outside the scope of practice for MFTs and LCSWs. Circumstances exist in which a “special relationship” is presumed by law to exist when one person is particularly vulnerable and dependent on another person who, correspondingly, has some control over the person’s welfare (Kockelman v. Segal, 1998). The relationship between a therapist and his or her patient constitutes this type of relationship. This special relationship imposes an affirmative duty on the therapist to protect others from either the therapist’s own negligence or from the client’s dangerousness towards self or others. 1A. MFT Scope of Practice MFT scope of practice is defined in Section 4980.02 of the California Business and Professions Code, “For the purposes of this chapter, the practice of marriage, family, and child counseling shall mean that service performed with individuals, couples, or groups wherein interpersonal relationships are examined for the purpose of achieving more adequate, satisfying, and productive marriage and family adjustments. This practice includes relationship and pre-marriage counseling. The applications of marriage, family, and child counseling principles and methods includes, but is not limited to, the use of applied psychotherapeutic techniques, to enable individuals to mature and grow within marriage and the family, and the provision of explanations and interpretations of the psychosexual and psychosocial aspects of relationships.” Pursuant to Business and Professions Code Section 4980.08, effective July 1, 1999, the title "licensed marriage, family and child counselor" or "marriage, family and child counselor" is hereby renamed "licensed marriage and family therapist" or "marriage and family therapist," respectively. Any reference in any statute or regulation to a "licensed marriage, family and child counselor" or "marriage, family and child counselor" shall be deemed a reference to a "licensed marriage and family therapist" or "marriage and family therapist."
1B. LCSW Scope of Practice LCSW scope of practice is defined in Section: 4996.9 of the California Business and Professions Code, “The practice of clinical social work is defined as a service in which a special knowledge of social resources, human capabilities, and the part that unconscious motivation plays in determining behavior, is directed at helping people to achieve more adequate, satisfying, and productive social adjustments. The application of social work principles and methods includes, but is not restricted to, counseling and using applied psychotherapy of a non-medical nature with individuals, families, or groups; providing information and referral services; providing or arranging for the provision of social services; explaining or interpreting the psychosocial aspects in the situations of individuals, families, or groups; helping communities to organize, to provide, or to improve social or health services; or doing research related to social work. “Psychotherapy, within the meaning of this chapter, is the use of psychosocial methods within a professional relationship, to assist the person or persons to achieve a better psychosocial adaptation, to acquire greater human realization of psychosocial potential and adaptation, to modify internal and external conditions which affect individuals, groups, or communities in respect to behavior, emotions, and thinking, in respect to their intrapersonal and interpersonal processes.”
2. UNPROFFESIONAL CONDUCT, NEGLIGENCE, LAW, ETHICS, AND STANDARD OF CARE
2A. Unprofessional Conduct and Negligence
The Business and Professions Code, Section 4982 indicates examples of unprofessional conduct including “negligence or incompetence in the performance of marriage and family therapy; misrepresentation involving type of license held, educational credentials, professional qualification or professional affiliations; performing, or holding oneself out as being able to perform services outside the scope of the license; failing to maintain confidentiality, except as otherwise permitted or required by law; and soliciting or paying remuneration for referrals. Unprofessional conduct is punishable by revocation or suspension of a license or an intern's registration; it is also a misdemeanor punishable by imprisonment in the county jail not exceeding six months, by a fine not exceeding $2,500, or both.” Required Coursework in Psychological Testing and Psychopharmacology: Business & Professions Code 4980.41(f) requires qualifying master's or doctor's degree programs leading to the MFT license to contain survey courses in psychopharmacology. These courses will be required only for those persons who begin graduate study on or after January 1, 2001. Anyone currently in the pipeline will not be affected by this new requirement. In regards to recordkeeping, 2. Interns are not to be supervised by anyone with whom they have a personal relationship. Nor should interns receive supervision from their psychotherapists. the failure to keep records consistent with sound clinical judgment, the standards of the profession, and the nature of the services being rendered is considered unprofessional conduct. No person may, for remuneration, engage in the practice of marriage and family therapy or social work as defined by Section 4980.02, unless he or she holds a valid license as a Marriage and Family Therapist or social worker, or unless he is specifically exempted from such requirement, nor may he advertise himself or herself as performing the services of a marriage, family, child, domestic, or marital consultant, or in any way use these or any similar titles to imply that he or she performs these services without a license as provided by this chapter.
Alchoholism and Substance Abuse Dependancy
© 2009 by Aspira Continuing Education. All rights reserved. No part of this material may be transmitted or reproduced in any form, or by any means, mechanical or electronic without written permission of Aspira Continuing Education.
1. Become familiar with clinical and statistical information regarding substance abuse history, DSM criteria, types of abuse, demographic characteristics, treatment, and outcomes. 2. Define substance abuse and identify its efftects. 3. Become familiar with the medical aspects of alcohol abuse/dependence and other types of chemical dependency. 4. Apply current theories of the etiology of substance abuse. 5. Recognize the role of persons and systems that support or compound the abuse. 6. Become familiar with the major treatment approaches to alcoholism and chemical dependency. 7. Learn the national legal aspects of substance abuse. 8. Obtain knowledge of certain populations at risk with regard to substance abuse. 9. Access community resources offering assessment, treatment and follow-up for the abuser and family. 10. Learn the process of referring affected persons.
Table of Contents: 1. Definitions 2. History 3. DSM Criteria 4. Types of Substance Abuse 5. Prescription Drug Addiction and Dependence 6. Demographic Characteristics 7. Substance Abuse Treatment and Outcomes 8. References
1. DEFINITIONS
Substance abuse is defined as “the overindulgence in and dependence of a drug or other chemical leading to effects that are detrimental to the individual's physical and mental health, or the welfare of others. It is characterized by a pattern of continued pathological use of a medication, non-medically indicated substance, drug or toxin, that results in repeated adverse social consequences related to drug use, such as failure to meet work, family, or school obligations, interpersonal conflicts, or legal problems. Some controversy exists regarding the precise distinctions between substance abuse and substance dependence. However, the current clinical standard distinguishes between them by defining substance dependence in terms of physiological and behavioral symptoms of substance use, and substance abuse in terms of the social consequences of substance use. Substance abuse may lead to addiction or substance dependence. Dependence requires the development of tolerance leading to withdrawal symptoms. Both abuse and dependence are distinct from addiction which involves a compulsion to continue using the substance despite the negative consequences, and may or may not involve chemical dependency. Dependence almost always implies abuse. However, abuse frequently occurs without dependence. Dependence involves added physiological processes while substance abuse reflects a complex interaction between the individual, the abused substance and society.”
2. HISTORY
Throughout history, in fact for thousands of years, substance abuse has existed. Early Egyptians drank wine while narcotics were used dating back to 4000 B.C. Medicinal use of marijuana has been dated back to 2737 B.C. in China. During the 19th century, the active substances in drugs began to be extracted. At that time, substances including morphine, laudanum, and cocaine were unregulated and prescribed by physicians for a variety of illnesses. During the American Civil War, morphine was commonly used, and wounded veterans returned home with morphine kits and hypodermic needles. Opium dens grew and by the early 1900s there were an estimated 250,000 addicts in the United States (Office of Applied Studies, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration). The problems of addiction became gradually identified. Legal measures against drug abuse in the United States were first established in 1875, when opium dens were outlawed in San Francisco. The first national drug law was the Pure Food and Drug Act of 1906, which required accurate labeling of patent medicines containing opium and certain other drugs. In 1914 the Harrison Narcotic Act forbade sale of substantial doses of opiates or cocaine except by licensed doctors and pharmacies. Later, heroin was totally banned. Subsequent Supreme Court decisions made it illegal for doctors to prescribe any narcotic to addicts; many doctors who prescribed maintenance doses as part of an addiction treatment plan were jailed, and soon all attempts at treatment were abandoned. Use of narcotics and cocaine diminished by the 1920s. The spirit of temperance led to the prohibition of alcohol by the Eighteenth Amendment to the Constitution in 1919, but Prohibition was repealed in 1933. In the 1930s most states required antidrug education in the schools, but fears that knowledge would lead to experimentation caused it to be abandoned in most places. Soon after the repeal of Prohibition, the U.S. Federal Bureau of Narcotics (now the Drug Enforcement Administration) began a campaign to portray marijuana as a powerful, addicting substance that would lead users into narcotics addiction. In the 1950s, use of marijuana increased again, along with that of amphetamines and tranquilizers. The social upheaval of the 1960s brought with it a dramatic increase in drug use and some increased social acceptance; by the early 1970s some states and localities had decriminalized marijuana and lowered drinking ages. The 1980s brought a decline in the use of most drugs, but cocaine and crack use soared. The military became involved in border patrols for the first time, and troops invaded Panama and brought its de facto leader, Manuel Noriega, to trial for drug trafficking (Office of Applied Studies, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration). Throughout the years, the public's perception of the dangers of specific substances changed. The surgeon general's warning label on tobacco packaging gradually made people aware of the addictive nature of nicotine. By 1995, the Food and Drug Administration was considering its regulation. The recognition of fetal alcohol syndrome brought warning labels to alcohol products. The addictive nature of prescription drugs such as diazepam (Valium) became known, and caffeine came under scrutiny as well. Drug laws have tried to keep up with the changing perceptions and real dangers of substance abuse. By 1970 over 55 federal drug laws and countless state laws specified a variety of punitive measures, including life imprisonment and
even the death penalty. To clarify the situation, the Comprehensive Drug Abuse Prevention and Control Act of 1970 repealed, replaced, or updated all previous federal laws concerned with narcotics and all other dangerous drugs. While possession was made illegal, the severest penalties were reserved for illicit distribution and manufacture of drugs. The act dealt with prevention and treatment of drug abuse as well as control of drug traffic. The Anti-Drug Abuse Acts of 1986 and 1988 increased funding for treatment and rehabilitation; the 1988 act created the Office of National Drug Control Policy. Its director, often referred to as the drug “czar,” is responsible for coordinating national drug control policy (Office of Applied Studies, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration).
1. Become familiar with clinical and statistical information regarding substance abuse history, DSM criteria, types of abuse, demographic characteristics, treatment, and outcomes. 2. Define substance abuse and identify its efftects. 3. Become familiar with the medical aspects of alcohol abuse/dependence and other types of chemical dependency. 4. Apply current theories of the etiology of substance abuse. 5. Recognize the role of persons and systems that support or compound the abuse. 6. Become familiar with the major treatment approaches to alcoholism and chemical dependency. 7. Learn the national legal aspects of substance abuse. 8. Obtain knowledge of certain populations at risk with regard to substance abuse. 9. Access community resources offering assessment, treatment and follow-up for the abuser and family. 10. Learn the process of referring affected persons.
Table of Contents: 1. Definitions 2. History 3. DSM Criteria 4. Types of Substance Abuse 5. Prescription Drug Addiction and Dependence 6. Demographic Characteristics 7. Substance Abuse Treatment and Outcomes 8. References
1. DEFINITIONS
Substance abuse is defined as “the overindulgence in and dependence of a drug or other chemical leading to effects that are detrimental to the individual's physical and mental health, or the welfare of others. It is characterized by a pattern of continued pathological use of a medication, non-medically indicated substance, drug or toxin, that results in repeated adverse social consequences related to drug use, such as failure to meet work, family, or school obligations, interpersonal conflicts, or legal problems. Some controversy exists regarding the precise distinctions between substance abuse and substance dependence. However, the current clinical standard distinguishes between them by defining substance dependence in terms of physiological and behavioral symptoms of substance use, and substance abuse in terms of the social consequences of substance use. Substance abuse may lead to addiction or substance dependence. Dependence requires the development of tolerance leading to withdrawal symptoms. Both abuse and dependence are distinct from addiction which involves a compulsion to continue using the substance despite the negative consequences, and may or may not involve chemical dependency. Dependence almost always implies abuse. However, abuse frequently occurs without dependence. Dependence involves added physiological processes while substance abuse reflects a complex interaction between the individual, the abused substance and society.”
2. HISTORY
Throughout history, in fact for thousands of years, substance abuse has existed. Early Egyptians drank wine while narcotics were used dating back to 4000 B.C. Medicinal use of marijuana has been dated back to 2737 B.C. in China. During the 19th century, the active substances in drugs began to be extracted. At that time, substances including morphine, laudanum, and cocaine were unregulated and prescribed by physicians for a variety of illnesses. During the American Civil War, morphine was commonly used, and wounded veterans returned home with morphine kits and hypodermic needles. Opium dens grew and by the early 1900s there were an estimated 250,000 addicts in the United States (Office of Applied Studies, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration). The problems of addiction became gradually identified. Legal measures against drug abuse in the United States were first established in 1875, when opium dens were outlawed in San Francisco. The first national drug law was the Pure Food and Drug Act of 1906, which required accurate labeling of patent medicines containing opium and certain other drugs. In 1914 the Harrison Narcotic Act forbade sale of substantial doses of opiates or cocaine except by licensed doctors and pharmacies. Later, heroin was totally banned. Subsequent Supreme Court decisions made it illegal for doctors to prescribe any narcotic to addicts; many doctors who prescribed maintenance doses as part of an addiction treatment plan were jailed, and soon all attempts at treatment were abandoned. Use of narcotics and cocaine diminished by the 1920s. The spirit of temperance led to the prohibition of alcohol by the Eighteenth Amendment to the Constitution in 1919, but Prohibition was repealed in 1933. In the 1930s most states required antidrug education in the schools, but fears that knowledge would lead to experimentation caused it to be abandoned in most places. Soon after the repeal of Prohibition, the U.S. Federal Bureau of Narcotics (now the Drug Enforcement Administration) began a campaign to portray marijuana as a powerful, addicting substance that would lead users into narcotics addiction. In the 1950s, use of marijuana increased again, along with that of amphetamines and tranquilizers. The social upheaval of the 1960s brought with it a dramatic increase in drug use and some increased social acceptance; by the early 1970s some states and localities had decriminalized marijuana and lowered drinking ages. The 1980s brought a decline in the use of most drugs, but cocaine and crack use soared. The military became involved in border patrols for the first time, and troops invaded Panama and brought its de facto leader, Manuel Noriega, to trial for drug trafficking (Office of Applied Studies, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration). Throughout the years, the public's perception of the dangers of specific substances changed. The surgeon general's warning label on tobacco packaging gradually made people aware of the addictive nature of nicotine. By 1995, the Food and Drug Administration was considering its regulation. The recognition of fetal alcohol syndrome brought warning labels to alcohol products. The addictive nature of prescription drugs such as diazepam (Valium) became known, and caffeine came under scrutiny as well. Drug laws have tried to keep up with the changing perceptions and real dangers of substance abuse. By 1970 over 55 federal drug laws and countless state laws specified a variety of punitive measures, including life imprisonment and
even the death penalty. To clarify the situation, the Comprehensive Drug Abuse Prevention and Control Act of 1970 repealed, replaced, or updated all previous federal laws concerned with narcotics and all other dangerous drugs. While possession was made illegal, the severest penalties were reserved for illicit distribution and manufacture of drugs. The act dealt with prevention and treatment of drug abuse as well as control of drug traffic. The Anti-Drug Abuse Acts of 1986 and 1988 increased funding for treatment and rehabilitation; the 1988 act created the Office of National Drug Control Policy. Its director, often referred to as the drug “czar,” is responsible for coordinating national drug control policy (Office of Applied Studies, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration).
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